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1816 United States presidential election

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For related races, see 1816 United States elections.

1816 United States presidential election
← 1812 November 1 – December 4, 1816 1820 →
217 members of the Electoral College
109 electoral votes needed to win
Turnout16.9%[1] Decrease 23.5 pp
 
Nominee James Monroe Rufus King
Party Democratic-Republican Federalist
Home state Virginia New York
Running mate Daniel D. Tompkins N/A[a]
Electoral vote 183 34
States carried 16 3
Popular vote 93,871 16,983
Percentage 72.9% 13.2%
1816 United States presidential election in Massachusetts1816 United States presidential election in New Hampshire1816 United States presidential election in Massachusetts1816 United States presidential election in Rhode Island1816 United States presidential election in Connecticut1816 United States presidential election in New York1816 United States presidential election in Vermont1816 United States presidential election in New Jersey1816 United States presidential election in Pennsylvania1816 United States presidential election in Delaware1816 United States presidential election in Maryland1816 United States presidential election in Virginia1816 United States presidential election in Ohio1816 United States presidential election in Indiana1816 United States presidential election in Kentucky1816 United States presidential election in Tennessee1816 United States presidential election in North Carolina1816 United States presidential election in South Carolina1816 United States presidential election in Georgia1816 United States presidential election in Louisiana
Presidential election results map. Green denotes states won by Monroe and Salmon denotes states won by King. Numbers indicate the number of electoral votes cast by each state.
President before election

James Madison
Democratic-Republican

Elected President

James Monroe
Democratic-Republican

Presidential elections were held in the United States from November 1 to December 4, 1816. The Democratic-Republican ticket of secretary of state James Monroe and the governor of New York Daniel D. Tompkins defeated the de facto Federalist candidate, the senior U.S. senator from New York Rufus King.[2] Although not formally nominated, King became the last Federalist presidential candidate upon receiving 34 votes from Federalist unpledged electors.[3] In the subsequent election, the Federalists carried three states but did not field their own candidate, instead supporting the incumbent Monroe, before disappearing by the end of the 1820s.[4]

The outgoing President James Madison did not seek re-election to a third consecutive term. Monroe emerged as the Democratic-Republican frontrunner and secured the party's nomination at its congressional nominating caucus in March, narrowly defeating the secretary of war William H. Crawford. The caucus nominated Tompkins for vice president over the governor of Pennsylvania Simon Snyder. The Federalists were disorganized following the end of the War of 1812 and did not hold a caucus or formally select a candidate. King himself remained aloof from the campaign and did nothing to promote his candidacy.[5] No consensus on a vice presidential candidate emerged among the Federalist electors, who scattered their votes between four candidates.[6]

Monroe benefited from the popularity of the outgoing Madison administration and resurgent nationalism following the end of the war. Madison's 1816 message to Congress endorsed an ambitious economic program that robbed the Federalists of much of their platform, most notably chartering the Second Bank of the United States.[7] In spite of significant discontent with the caucus system and the incumbent Virginia dynasty, the Democratic-Republicans were able to avoid a major factional schism in contrast to the previous election. The Federalists meanwhile were demoralized, dogged by accusations of treason, and ill-prepared to mount a national campaign.[8] Most took Monroe's election for granted and did not attempt to prevent it.[3] In three states where electors were chosen by the legislature, Federalists controlled the selection process and appointed unpledged electors who voted for King.[9] Monroe carried the 16 remaining states, including every state where electors were chosen by popular vote, amidst widespread voter apathy and anemic turnout turnout.[10]

Nominations

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Democratic-Republican Party

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Caucus

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James Madison, the incumbent president in 1816, whose second term expired on March 4, 1817

Monroe followed an uncertain path to the nomination in 1816. He had feuded with Madison for most of the preceding three decades, running against him for a seat in the United States House of Representatives in 1789 and for the presidency in 1808.[11] Monroe mended relations with Madison during the War of 1812, serving as secretary of state and secretary of war in the latter's administration, and by 1816 was positioning himself as the president's natural successor. Monroe was not personally popular, and his candidacy encountered resistance from northern Democratic-Republicans and others opposed to the extension of the Virginia dynasty. During the winter of 1815–16, New York governor Daniel D. Tompkins and Monroe's successor as secretary of war William H. Crawford emerged as rivals for the presidency.[12]

Popular in his home state, Tompkins could count on the loyal support of the Anti-Clintonian faction of the New York Democratic-Republican Party, but his candidacy struggled to attract a national following. While the New York General Assembly formally nominated him for president on February 14, his lack of name recognition, youth, and volatility were seen as serious disadvantages. By March, Tompkins had seemingly given up all hope of his nomination and instead focussed his efforts on the vice presidency.[13]

Although Crawford publicly denied interest in the presidency, his candidacy quickly gathered significant support from editors and politicians ahead of the party's congressional nominating caucus, and by February had amassed enough strength to present a serious challenge to Monroe. Despite this, Crawford remained hesitant to openly seek the nomination. Having personally assured the secretary of state that he would not be a candidate in 1816, he was reluctant to damage his standing in the party with a fight for the nomination. The continued enthusiasm for his candidacy following his public refusal in February left the war secretary unsure of how to proceed.[14]

Substantial public opinion opposed the caucus system as corrupt, undemocratic, and potentially unconstitutional.[15] While Monroe preferred to retain the caucus system, Crawford's popularity among Democratic-Republicans in Congress made calling a caucus immediately disadvantageous to Monroe's chances of gaining the nomination.[16] When finally an anonymous notice announced the date of the caucus as March 12, the meeting was attended by only 58 members, principally supporters of Crawford. The gathering was judged too small to command public credibility, and on the motion of Jeremiah Morrow of Ohio, the caucus adjourned until March 16. During the recess, Crawford instructed the U.S. senators from Georgia Charles Tait and William W. Bibb to withdraw his candidacy, having decided to postpone his ambitions until 1824. When the caucus met again on the 16th, all but 22 Democratic-Republican members were in attendance. Henry Clay and John W. Taylor again moved that it was "inexpedient" to nominate a presidential candidate, but were voted down; the caucus then nominated Monroe by a vote of 65 to 54.[17]

Monroe owed his majority over Crawford to the 11 Virginians in attendance, who supplied the margin of victory.[17] Crawford received the votes of the New York, New Jersey, Georgia, and Kentucky delegations, notwithstanding their candidate's withdrawal. Of the 22 Democratic-Republican members who did not attend the caucus, the majority were Crawfordites who absented themselves at Crawford's request to allow Monroe's nomination.[18] The narrow margin between the candidates and the presumed sympathies of the 22 absent members encouraged the belief that "Crawford would certainly have been nominated had he made even the slighted effort on his behalf."[19]

In the event of his defeat, Crawford had instructed Tait and Bibb to issue a statement that he had been drafted without his consent; this the senators neglected to do. Crawford would subsequently attribute Monroe's lack of support for his candidacy in 1824 to this embarrassment.[20]

Presidential nomination
Candidate 1st
James Monroe 65
William H. Crawford 54

Nominees

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Democratic-Republican Party
Democratic-Republican Party
1816 Democratic-Republican Party Ticket
James Monroe Daniel D. Tompkins
for President for Vice President
7th
U.S. Secretary of State
(1811–1817) 		4th
Governor of New York
(1807–1817)

Candidates

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Candidates in this section are sorted by vote count in the congressional nominating caucus
William H. Crawford Daniel D. Tompkins
U.S. secretary of War
(1815–1817) 		4th governor of New York
(1807–1817)
LN: March 16, 1816
54 votes 		W: March 13, 1816
0 votes
[17] [13]

Vice presidential nomination

[edit]

With the matter of the presidential candidate concluded, the caucus proceeded to nominate Tompkins for vice president; the governor of Pennsylvania Simon Snyder finished a distant second. His presidential aspirations thwarted, Tompkins nevertheless exceeded Monroe's margin over Crawford by 20 votes, defeating Snyder 85 to 30.[21]

Vice Presidential nomination
Candidate 1st
Daniel D. Tompkins 85
Simon Snyder 30

Federalist Party

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Federalist Party
Federalist Party
1816 Federalist Party Ticket
Rufus King John Eager Howard
for President for Vice President
U. S. Senator
from New York
(1789–1796, 1813–1825) 		U. S. Senator
from Maryland
(1796–1803)

In hopes of uniting with disaffected Democratic-Republicans, as they had in the previous election, the Federalists initially planned to hold their own congressional nominating caucus after that of the Democratic-Republicans. With the end of the war and the nomination of Monroe, the Federalists abandoned their hopes of another fusion ticket, and the demoralized party failed to formally nominate a candidate. Senator Rufus King of New York, who had been the party's 1804 and 1808 vice presidential nominee, and who had been nominated for president by a dissident faction of the party in 1812, eventually emerged as the de facto Federalist presidential nominee. Several Federalists would receive electoral votes for vice president, with former Senator John Eager Howard of Maryland receiving the most votes.[22] The Federalists did not formally select a vice-presidential candidate.[23]

General election

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Dispute about Indiana

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On February 12, 1817, the House and Senate met in joint session to count the electoral votes for president and vice president. The count proceeded without incident until the roll came to the last state to be counted, Indiana. At that point, Representative John W. Taylor of New York objected to the counting of Indiana's votes. He argued that Congress had acknowledged the statehood of Indiana in a joint resolution on December 11, 1816, whereas the ballots of the Electoral College had been cast on December 4, 1816. He claimed that at the time of the balloting, there had been merely a Territory of Indiana, not a State of Indiana. Other representatives contradicted Taylor, asserting that the joint resolution merely recognized that Indiana had already joined the Union by forming a state constitution and government on June 29, 1816. These representatives pointed out that both the House and Senate had seated members from Indiana who had been elected prior to the joint resolution, which would have been unconstitutional had Indiana not been a state at the time of their election. Representative Samuel D. Ingham then moved that the question be postponed indefinitely. The House agreed almost unanimously, and the Senate was brought back in to count the electoral votes from Indiana. The issue had no bearing on the final result.

Results

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The United States Electoral Colleges in 1816

Monroe had won all but three of the nineteen states. King thought that a Monroe victory was inevitable, and did not seriously contest the election.[24]

Each of the three states that were won by King voted for a different person for vice president. Massachusetts electors voted for former United States Senator (and future Governor) John Eager Howard of Maryland. Delaware chose a different Marylander, sitting United States Senator Robert Goodloe Harper. Connecticut split its vote between James Ross of Pennsylvania and Chief Justice John Marshall.

Maryland did not choose its electors as a slate; rather, it divided itself into 9 electoral districts, with each district choosing one elector; except for the 3rd and 4th districts which each had two electors.[25] Three of Maryland's nine districts were won by Federalist electors. However, these electors did not vote for King or for a Federalist vice president, instead casting blank votes as a protest.[of what?][citation needed]

Electoral results

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Electoral results
Presidential candidate Party Home state Popular vote(a), (b) Electoral
vote(c) 		Running mate
Count Percentage Vice-presidential candidate Home state Electoral vote(c)
James Monroe Democratic-Republican Virginia 93,871 72.9% 183 Daniel D. Tompkins New York 183
Rufus King Federalist New York 16,983 13.2% 34 John E. Howard Maryland 22
James Ross Pennsylvania 5
John Marshall Virginia 4
Robert Goodloe Harper Maryland 3
Unpledged electors None N/A 17,997 14.0% 0 N/A N/A 0
Total 128,851 100% 217 217
Needed to win 109 109

Source (Popular Vote): A New Nation Votes: American Election Returns 1787-1825[26]

(a) Only 10 of the 19 states chose electors by popular vote.
(b) Those states that did choose electors by popular vote had widely varying restrictions on suffrage via property requirements.
(c) One Elector from Delaware and three Electors from Maryland did not vote.

Popular vote
Monroe
 
 72.9%
King
 
 13.2%
Unpledged electors
 
 14.0%
Electoral vote—President
Monroe
 
 84.3%
King
 
 15.7%
Electoral vote—Vice President
Tompkins
 
 84.3%
Howard
 
 10.1%
Ross
 
 2.3%
Marshall
 
 1.8%
Harper
 
 1.4%

Results by state

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Elections in this period were vastly different from modern day presidential elections. The actual presidential candidates were rarely mentioned on tickets and voters were voting for particular electors who were pledged to a particular candidate. There was sometimes confusion as to who the particular elector was actually pledged to. Results are reported as the highest result for an elector for any given candidate. For example, if three Monroe electors received 100, 50, and 25 votes, Monroe would be recorded as having 100 votes. Confusion surrounding the way results are reported may lead to discrepancies between the sum of all state results and national results.

The Federalist parties of New Jersey, Rhode Island, and Pennsylvania did not provide a slate of electors, and as such Monroe was virtually unopposed in most of these states with the exception of Federalist unpledged electors who received a handful of votes.[27][28][29] In Pennsylvania, the Federalists supported Monroe electors with opposition coming from an independent ticket of unpledged electors.[29]

Tennessee's voting records appear to have been lost.[30]

James Monroe
Democratic-Republican 		Unpledged electors[b]
Federalist 		Others Margin State total Citation
State Electoral
votes 		No. % Electoral
votes 		No. % Electoral
votes 		No. % Electoral
votes 		No. %
Connecticut 9 * — * 9 * — * — [2][31]
Delaware 4 * — * 4[c] * — * — [2][32]
Georgia 8 * 8 * — * — * — [2]
Indiana 3 * 3 * — * — * — [2][33]
Kentucky–1 4 no data 4 no data — no data — no data no data [34][35]
Kentucky–2 4 1,508 100.0 4 — — — — 1,508 100.0 1,508 [34][36]
Kentucky–3 4 356 100.0 4 — — — — 356 100.0 356 [34][37]
Louisiana 3 * 3 * — * — * — [34][38]
Maryland–1 1 2 0.74 — 270 99.26 1[d] — — 268 98.52 272 [39]
Maryland–2 1 523 73.7 1 184 25.9 — 3 0.4 — 339 47.8 710 [40]
Maryland–3 2 1,440 99.0 2 13 0.9 — 2 0.1 — 1,427 98.1 1,455 [41]
Maryland–4 2 1,855 95.7 2 — — 83 4.3 — 1,722 91.4 1,938 [34][42]
Maryland–5 1 693 100.0 1 — — — — 693 100.0 693 [34][43]
Maryland–6 1 938 67.9 1 435 31.5 — 9 0.6 — 503 36.4 1,382 [34][44]
Maryland–7 1 750 100.0 1 — — — — 750 100.0 750 [45]
Maryland–8 1 1,282 48.9 — 1,338 51.1 1[d] — — -56 -2.2 2,620 [34][46]
Maryland–9 1 30 3.3 — 886 96.7 1[d] — — -856 -93.4 916 [47]
Massachusetts 22 * — * 22 * — * — [34][48]
New Hampshire 8 15,225 53.3 8 13,338 46.7 — — — 1,887 6.6 28,563 [49]
New Jersey 8 5,441 99.0 8 54 1.0 — — — 5,387 98.0 5,495 [34][50]
New York 29 * 29 * — * — * — [34][51]
North Carolina 15 9,549 98.4 15 158 1.6 — — — 9,391 96.7 9,707 [34][52]
Ohio 8 3,326 84.9 8 593 15.1 — — — 2,733 69.7 3,919 [34][53]
Pennsylvania 25 25,749 59.4 25 — — 17,597 40.6 — 8,152 18.8 43,346 [54]
Rhode Island 4 1,236 100.0 4 — — — — 1,236 100.0 1,236 [55][56]
South Carolina 11 * 11 * — * — * — [55][57]
Tennessee–1 1 no data 1 no data — no data — no data no data [55][58]
Tennessee–2 1 no data 1 no data — no data — no data no data [55]
Tennessee–3 1 no data 1 no data — no data — no data no data [55]
Tennessee–4 1 no data 1 no data — no data — no data no data [55][59]
Tennessee–5 1 no data 1 no data — no data — no data no data [55]
Tennessee–6 1 no data 1 no data — no data — no data no data [55][60]
Tennessee–7 1 no data 1 no data — no data — no data no data [55]
Tennessee–8 1 no data 1 no data — no data — no data no data [55]
Vermont 8 * 8 * — * — * — [55]
Virginia 25 6,859 99.9 25 4 0.1 — — — 6,855 99.8 — [55][61]

States and districts that flipped from Federalist to Democratic-Republican

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Districts that flipped from Democratic-Republican to Federalist

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Close states and districts

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Districts where the margin of victory was less than 5 percentage points:

  1. Maryland's 8th electoral district, 2.2% (56 votes)

States where the margin of victory was less than 10 percentage points:

  1. New Hampshire, 6.3% (1,813 votes)

Maps

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  • Map of presidential election results by county, shaded according to the vote share of the highest result for an elector of any given candidate
    Map of presidential election results by county, shaded according to the vote share of the highest result for an elector of any given candidate
  • Map of presidential election results by electoral district, shaded according to the vote share of the highest result for an elector of any given candidate. Electoral boundaries for Maryland and most of Tennessee could not be found
    Map of presidential election results by electoral district, shaded according to the vote share of the highest result for an elector of any given candidate. Electoral boundaries for Maryland and most of Tennessee could not be found

Electoral college selection

[edit]
Method of choosing electors State(s)
Each Elector appointed by state legislature
Each Elector chosen by voters statewide
State is divided into three electoral districts, with four Electors chosen per district by the voters of each district
State is divided into electoral districts, with one Elector chosen per district by the voters of that district

See also

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Notes

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  1. ^ No candidate was formally nominated. John Eager Howard received 22 votes, James Ross 5, John Marshall 4, Robert Goodloe Harper 3.
  2. ^ Except as noted, the Federalist electors voted for Rufus King.
  3. ^ One elector did not vote; the three remaining electors voted for Rufus King.
  4. ^ a b c Cast a blank vote
  1. ^ "National General Election VEP Turnout Rates, 1789-Present". United States Election Project. CQ Press.
  2. ^ a b c d e Dubin 2002, p. 22.
  3. ^ a b Turner 2002, p. 307.
  4. ^ Howe 2007, pp. 146, 95.
  5. ^ Skeen 2003, pp. 219–20, 224–25.
  6. ^ Dubin 2002, p. 25n1.
  7. ^ Howe 2007, pp. 80–81.
  8. ^ Skeen 2003, pp. 211, 228–29.
  9. ^ Skeen 2003, p. 230.
  10. ^ Turner 2002, p. 308.
  11. ^ Howe 2007, p. 91.
  12. ^ Skeen 2003, pp. 212–14.
  13. ^ a b Skeen 2003, p. 214.
  14. ^ Skeen 2003, pp. 216–17.
  15. ^ Skeen 2003, p. 217.
  16. ^ Turner 2002, p. 303.
  17. ^ a b c Skeen 2003, p. 219.
  18. ^ Turner 2002, p. 305.
  19. ^ Skeen 2003, p. 220.
  20. ^ Skeen 2003, pp. 219–20.
  21. ^ Turner 2002, pp. 305–6.
  22. ^ Deskins, Donald Richard; Walton, Hanes; Puckett, Sherman (2010). Presidential Elections, 1789-2008: County, State, and National Mapping of Election Data. University of Michigan Press. pp. 65–66.
  23. ^ Howe 2007, p. 90.
  24. ^ Sabato, Larry; Ernst, Howard (January 1, 2009). Encyclopedia of American Political Parties and Elections. Infobase Publishing. pp. 304–305.
  25. ^ "A New Nation Votes". elections.lib.tufts.edu. Retrieved February 17, 2025.
  26. ^ "A New Nation Votes".
  27. ^ "A New Nation Votes". elections.lib.tufts.edu. Retrieved April 27, 2020.
  28. ^ "A New Nation Votes". elections.lib.tufts.edu. Retrieved April 27, 2020.
  29. ^ a b "A New Nation Votes". elections.lib.tufts.edu. Retrieved June 8, 2024.
  30. ^ "A New Nation Votes". elections.lib.tufts.edu. Retrieved April 27, 2020.
  31. ^ Lampi, Philip J. "Connecticut 1816 Electoral College". A New Nation Votes. American Antiquarian Society. Retrieved February 17, 2025.
  32. ^ Lampi, Philip J. "Delaware 1816 Electoral College". A New Nation Votes. American Antiquarian Society. Retrieved February 17, 2025.
  33. ^ Lampi, Philip J. "Indiana 1816 Electoral College". A New Nation Votes. American Antiquarian Society. Retrieved February 17, 2025.
  34. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Dubin 2002, p. 23.
  35. ^ Lampi, Philip J. "Kentucky 1816 Electoral College, District 1". A New Nation Votes. American Antiquarian Society. Retrieved February 17, 2025.
  36. ^ Lampi, Philip J. "Kentucky 1816 Electoral College, District 2". A New Nation Votes. American Antiquarian Society. Retrieved February 17, 2025.
  37. ^ Lampi, Philip J. "Kentucky 1816 Electoral College, District 3". A New Nation Votes. American Antiquarian Society. Retrieved February 17, 2025.
  38. ^ Lampi, Philip J. "Louisiana 1816 Electoral College". A New Nation Votes. American Antiquarian Society. Retrieved February 17, 2025.
  39. ^ Lampi, Philip J. "Maryland 1816 Electoral College, District 1". A New Nation Votes. American Antiquarian Society. Retrieved February 17, 2025.
  40. ^ Lampi, Philip J. "Maryland 1816 Electoral College, District 2". A New Nation Votes. American Antiquarian Society. Retrieved February 17, 2025.
  41. ^ Lampi, Philip J. "Maryland 1816 Electoral College, District 3". A New Nation Votes. American Antiquarian Society. Retrieved February 17, 2025.
  42. ^ Lampi, Philip J. "Maryland 1816 Electoral College, District 4". A New Nation Votes. American Antiquarian Society. Retrieved February 17, 2025.
  43. ^ Lampi, Philip J. "Maryland 1816 Electoral College, District 5". A New Nation Votes. American Antiquarian Society. Retrieved February 17, 2025.
  44. ^ Lampi, Philip J. "Maryland 1816 Electoral College, District 6". A New Nation Votes. American Antiquarian Society. Retrieved February 17, 2025.
  45. ^ Lampi, Philip J. "Maryland 1816 Electoral College, District 7". A New Nation Votes. American Antiquarian Society. Retrieved February 17, 2025.
  46. ^ Lampi, Philip J. "Maryland 1816 Electoral College, District 8". A New Nation Votes. American Antiquarian Society. Retrieved February 17, 2025.
  47. ^ Lampi, Philip J. "Maryland 1816 Electoral College, District 9". A New Nation Votes. American Antiquarian Society. Retrieved February 17, 2025.
  48. ^ Lampi, Philip J. "Massachusetts 1816 Electoral College". A New Nation Votes. American Antiquarian Society. Retrieved February 17, 2025.
  49. ^ Lampi, Philip J. "New Hampshire 1816 Electoral College". A New Nation Votes. American Antiquarian Society. Retrieved February 17, 2025.
  50. ^ Lampi, Philip J. "New Jersey 1816 Electoral College". A New Nation Votes. American Antiquarian Society. Retrieved February 17, 2025.
  51. ^ Lampi, Philip J. "New York 1816 Electoral College". A New Nation Votes. American Antiquarian Society. Retrieved February 17, 2025.
  52. ^ Lampi, Philip J. "North Carolina 1816 Electoral College". A New Nation Votes. American Antiquarian Society. Retrieved February 17, 2025.
  53. ^ Lampi, Philip J. "Ohio 1816 Electoral College". A New Nation Votes. American Antiquarian Society. Retrieved February 17, 2025.
  54. ^ Lampi, Philip J. "Pennsylvania 1816 Electoral College". A New Nation Votes. American Antiquarian Society. Retrieved February 17, 2025.
  55. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Dubin 2002, p. 24.
  56. ^ Lampi, Philip J. "Rhode Island 1816 Electoral College". A New Nation Votes. American Antiquarian Society. Retrieved February 17, 2025.
  57. ^ Lampi, Philip J. "South Carolina 1816 Electoral College". A New Nation Votes. American Antiquarian Society. Retrieved February 17, 2025.
  58. ^ Lampi, Philip J. "Tennessee 1816 Electoral Carter, Greene, Hawkins, Sullivan and Washington Counties". A New Nation Votes. American Antiquarian Society. Retrieved February 17, 2025.
  59. ^ Lampi, Philip J. "Tennessee 1816 Electoral College, Bledsoe, Franklin, Jackson, Overton, Rhea, Warren and White Counties". A New Nation Votes. American Antiquarian Society. Retrieved February 17, 2025.
  60. ^ Lampi, Philip J. "Tennessee 1816 Electoral College, Bedford, Davidson and Rutherford Counties". A New Nation Votes. American Antiquarian Society. Retrieved February 17, 2025.
  61. ^ Lampi, Philip J. "Virginia 1816 Electoral College". A New Nation Votes. American Antiquarian Society. Retrieved February 17, 2025.

Bibliography

[edit]

U.S. Congressional Documents

Books

Web

  • Skeen, Carl Edward (2003). 1816: America Rising. Lexington: University Press of Kentucky. pp. 219–20, 224–25.
  • Turner, Lynn W. (2002). "Elections of 1816 and 1820". In Schlesinger, Arthur M. Jr.; Israel, Fred L. (eds.). History of American Presidential Elections, 1789–2001. Vol. 1. Philadelphia: Chelsea House Publishers.
[edit]
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